Speaking Kurdish in Turkey: Legal right or social struggle?

Hannah M. Behncke, Eylül Sahin and Sabrina Eriksen Zapata – ELSA Bergen, Human Rights, Researchgruppen • 24. april 2025

Oppression isn’t always loud - it can be the quiet erasure of culture and language, stripping minorities of their freedom to express who they are. 


Language and culture are two of the most important means to keep one's identity alive. Unfortunately, many minorities face extreme repression regarding their background. The Kurdish ability to perform their culture in Turkey has been a long struggle. This is still the case today, where the Kurdish minority face backlash for speaking their language. 


This article will look into the Kurdish fight to protect their identity in Turkey. To gain a deeper understanding of the diverse perspectives on this issue, we interviewed a Kurdish and a Turkish citizen of Turkey about their views on the Turkish state's treatment of Kurds. 


Legal basis 


Although several international legal frameworks exist to protect minority cultures and languages, Turkey has not incorporated them into its legal system. 


Article 27 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights explicitly states that “minorities shall not be denied the right […] to enjoy their culture, [...] or to use their own language.” However, despite ratifying the ICCPR, Turkey made a reservation excluding Article 27. 


Similarly, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages requires minority languages to be accessible in education, judicial court proceedings, and in the media. However, Turkey has not ratified this charter. 


Domestically, the Turkish constitution does not recognize Kurds as a minority. In fact, article 42 explicitly prohibits the “teaching of any language other than Turkish as a mother tongue to Turkish citizens”.1 As a result, the Kurdish language lacks legal protection, unlike Ladino, Greek, and Armenian, which are safeguarded under the Treaty of Lausanne (1923).2 


Historical overview 

After the Ottoman Empire's collapse, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres promised Kurdish autonomy, but the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne nullified it, dividing Kurdistan among Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria without self-rule.3 

Under Atatürk, Turkey enforced homogenization, banning Kurdish in public, closing Kurdish schools, renaming villages (1924) and forcibly relocating Kurds—even though most Kurds did not speak Turkish.4 The state criminalized Kurdish, promoted Citizen, Speak Turkish! and justified relocations as a tool to suppress identity.5 


The Sheikh Sa’id Rebellion (1925), led by Kurdish nationalists and Islamists, was brutally crushed, triggering long-term conflict. Martial law and mass deportations lasted until 1939, while uprisings in Ararat (1930) and Dersim (1937–38) faced massacres, bombings, and poison gas, drawing parallels to the Armenian Genocide.6 


Allegations of British support for Kurdish rebels persist, but remain debated.7 


Kurdish political movements resurfaced in the 1960s and 1970s, with the Kurdish Democratic Party of Turkey (1965) and the Marxist-Leninist PKK (1978) engaging in armed resistance. Turkey designated the PKK a terrorist group in 1997, followed by the US and EU.8 

Forced displacement continued, with over a million Kurds migrating between 1950 and 1980 due to state violence and poverty.9 The 1980 military coup further suppressed Kurdish politics, banning education (1982) and publications (Law No. 2932, 1983).10 

Despite lifting the language ban in 1991, Kurdish broadcasting remained illegal until 2002. From 1984 to 1999, Turkey destroyed 4,000 Kurdish villages, displaced three million people, and killed tens of thousands in its campaign against Kurdish insurgency.11 The 1991 language bill allowed limited private Kurdish use, but public use remained restricted. 

Some progress followed in the 21st century, including Kurdish-language broadcasts (2004), a state-run TV channel (2009), and Kurdish as an optional school subject (2012), though full linguistic and cultural rights remain elusive. Oral storytelling (Dengbêj) persisted despite restrictions. 

Between 2013 and 2015, Turkey’s peace talks with the PKK, involving Abdullah Öcalan, PKK commanders, and pro-Kurdish HDP intermediaries, collapsed—renewing conflict in southeastern Turkey.12 

Arbitrary arrests, imprisonment, torture, and land dispossession persist, as security forces often fail to distinguish civilians from PKK members.13  


How is the situation today? 


An estimated 12–20 million Kurds live in Turkey, making up approximately 14–23% of the country's population. The wide range in estimates is due to the absence of ethnicity-related data in official statistics and the social and political stigma that may lead some to conceal their identity.14 As Kurds originate from various countries, most today identify with the state in which they reside. 

Surveys suggest that many Kurds feel a strong sense of discrimination. Only 28% believe they are treated equally to ethnic Turks, while 58% report experiencing discrimination. Some have even been denied medical services and housing due to their ethnicity.15 

To better understand these challenges, we spoke with a Kurdish individual from Elbistan, Turkey, who spent most of his life there before relocating. 


When asked if he had ever felt pressure speaking Kurdish in public, he recalled visits to public institutions where his family, unable to speak Turkish, had to use Kurdish, but were not allowed to. “It always made us feel fear and anxiety”, he said. 


He also described restrictions on Kurdish culture: “Whenever we listened to Kurdish music or played traditional games outside, we knew we were being watched. Some of my friends were even detained just for playing games with Kurdish music. It felt like our culture was a crime.” 


In contrast, a Turkish conservative nationalist offered a different perspective. While personally holding nationalist views, he answered the questions in general terms, arguing that Kurds are integrated into society and do not face systemic barriers. 


When asked if there was tension between Turks and Kurds in daily life, he dismissed the idea: “Generalizing Turkey’s sociology is difficult, but I don’t see any real barrier. I have Kurdish friends and colleagues, and background doesn’t matter to us. In cities like Istanbul, people aren’t judged based on race, religion, language, or culture.” 


Even though he acknowledged past discrimination, he viewed it as a historical issue rather than an ongoing one. 


While the two perspectives differ, they reflect broader discussions on the extent of cultural and linguistic inclusion in Turkey. Surveys suggest that many Kurds report experiencing discrimination, while some view Kurdish cultural expression as unrestricted. The extent to which Kurdish identity is freely expressed - or whether challenges remain - continues to be a subject of debate. 


The survival of Kurdish culture in Turkey 


In a survey conducted regarding Kurdish identity, only 30% of Kurds reported their Kurdish language skills to be “good”, and of this 30%, only 44% of them reported that their children had the same strong language skills.16 This suggests that it is harder for each passing generation to maintain and teach the Kurdish language. So how has the oppression impacted Kurdish ability to maintain their language? 


According to the latter interviewee “Kurdish is spoken openly, cultural traditions are practiced, and there are Kurdish-language newspapers and TV channels”. 


Media 


As mentioned above, the Turkish government continuously violates the “freedom of expression”. In 2021, Turkey was the country with most cases regarding violation to “freedom of expression” before the European Court of Human Rights.17 


Regarding Kurdish media, there has been a consistent crackdown on Kurdish media platforms. There has also been consistent imprisonment of journalists either writing in Kurdish or regarding Kurdish repression. For instance, Nedim Turfent was sentenced to 8 years imprisonment in 2017 for covering the clashes between the Turkish army and the PKK. In his sentence, he was charged with “membership of a terrorist organization”.18 


Education 


The Educational accessibility to teaching Kurdish has improved in the years. Students in cities with a high population of Kurds, can choose Kurdish as a subject in primary- and secondary school. In addition, some state level universities offer Kurdish programs. However, these educational means have been greatly criticized by Kurdish activists, in regard to the government lowering the quality of education by not supplying enough teachers and appropriate materials needed for the classes.19 


Final remarks 


Language is not just a means of communication; it embodies history, culture, and identity. The Kurdish struggle for linguistic freedom in Turkey is a fight for existence, where legal barriers and social stigmas persist despite claims of progress. While the government insists on inclusivity, Kurdish activists highlight ongoing repression, and for many, fear and anxiety remain. The future of Kurdish identity depends not just on legal reforms but on broader acceptance within Turkish society. Whether true equality is within reach - or remains a distant hope - ultimately depends on who you ask. 


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Injuria Anmelder: Legally Blonde, eller hvordan en blondine, en chihuahua og en rosa Macbook tok Harvard Law med storm

Av Christine Egebakken • 26. juni 2025
Legally Blond er ikke bare en film – det er en rosa revolusjon i stiletthæler. Det er historien om en fullstendig unormal jente fra California som – med overdrevent mye «squeaking» og en videosøknad som aller mest minner om en søknad til Baywatch - forviller seg inn på Harvard Law med håp om å vinne mannen hun er HELT HUNDRE PROSENT sikker på at er «the love of her life». Sjokkerende spoiler: de ender ikke opp sammen. Elle Woods, spilt av Reese Witherspoon, er kvinnen som setter spørsmålstegn ved hele utdanningssystemet, akademisk elitisme og hvorvidt man trenger noe mer enn en A i «History of Polkadots» for å komme inn på verdens mest prestisjetunge jusstudium. Du vet hvordan man sier at verden er urettferdig? Her sitter vi – på jusstudiet i Bergen – ikke en gang det mest prestisjetunge jusstudiet i landet– og har kjempet oss hit med blod, svette og karakterkalkulator. Vi har vært bitchy helt siden vi lære hva «snitt» betydde, og flere av oss får angstutslett av å høre ordene «samordna opptak». At Elle Woods spaserer inn på Harvard Law med en video der hun diskuterer skjønnhetsprodukter i et badebasseng, føles ... ærlig talt som et slags overgrep mot de norske idealene: blodslit, selvforakt og jantelovsgodkjente prestasjoner. Det er klart at det også er noen tydelige paralleller mellom filmen og jussen i Bergen. I likhet med Elle Woods har vi forstått at merkelige kjæledyr er veien til suksess. Her må det likevel presiseres at vi har valgt en litt mindre ambisiøs løsning. Redde for forpliktelse og relasjoner av betydning har vi kun kollektiv samværsrett med våre kjæledyr her på Dragefjellet. Også i valg av kjæledyr lever Elle Woods opp til mottoet «Go big or go home!». Hva skriker vel ikke powerwoman mer enn en forvokst rotte ved navn Bruiser? Jusstudenter har i alle år belagt seg på at «vanlige folk» ikke aner hva som befinner seg inni vår elskede juss-boble – og vi har tvilt på om de noen gang vil forstå. Vi har derfor tatt oss litt kunstnerisk frihet i historiefortellingen av vår hverdag. Lenge klarte vi å opprettholde fasaden om at juss er et univers fylt med tunge bøker, dyre dresser og en uforståelig kompleksitet. Vi skapte mystikk, og en viss grad av frykt og beundring. Men, i 2004 raste fasaden sammen. Ene og alene fratok Elle Woods alle jusstudenter livsløgnen. Sannheten kom frem, og den var ubarmhjertig: Jusstudier er ikke annet enn en eneste lang dans på roser. Men heller ikke Elle Woods med sin rosa og parfymerte CV slapp helt unna vanskeligheter da hun begynte på Harvard Law. De aller fleste av problemene ble heldigvis løst gjennom den svært effektive manikyrbaserte mentorordningen. Hvis du en dag innser at du er på struttende vei inn i det juridiske mørket, må du ikke glemme at løsningen er et usunt intimt forhold til negledamen din. Det er rett og slett en undervurdert form for kollokvium. Med alle jusstudenters mentale helse i mente, stemmer jeg derfor for innføring av skjønnhetssalong også her på Dragefjellet: så snart som overhodet mulig, bare for å være på den sikre siden. Filmens klimaks må være når Elle slår fast at: «Happy people just don´t shoot their husbands. They just don´t». Trykk det på en t-skjorte og bær den med stolthet. La det bli ditt nye livsmotto. Print det ut, ram det inn – og heng det opp på lesesalen. Dette er et sitat som fortjener veggstatus. Så til slutt må vi snakke om den scenen - når professor Callahan, bestemmer seg for å være en upassende creep og legger hånden på låret til Elle Woods. Her kan vi ikke være for krasse mot filmskaperne, fordi alle vet jo at seksuell trakassering og overgrep på arbeidsplasser ikke fantes før #metoo bevegelsen kom i 2017. Allikevel tror jeg flere enn en jurist satte juristforeningskaffen i halsen av filmens løsning på hendelsen: Brooke Taylor – klienten som er tiltalt for drapet på sin mann – sparker Callahan og lar Elle Woods representere henne i stedet. I hvilket univers er løsningen på ekle professorer å gi en førsteårsstudent med null advokatbevilling, null rettssalspraksis og fargekoordinert notatblokk ansvaret for en kvinne tiltalt for drap? Dette er en løsning så urealistisk at selv amerikanske rettsserier stiller seg kritiske. Filmen er ikke annet enn glitter, rosa dresser og ekstrem tro på egne evner. Legally Blonde er kanskje ikke en juridisk lærebok. Mest sannsynlig er det ikke engang en god film. Men den gir òg en viktig rosa høyhælt påminnelse om at neglestell er viktigere enn man skulle tro. Og om alt annet feiler, og da skal du virkelig være ganske sikker på at det ikke er noen andre løsninger, så kan du alltids spørre seg selv: Hva ville Elle Woods gjort?

Land for Sale? Renaming and Acquiring Land and Landmarks in 2025

Av Mathea Kristoffersen, Camila Salazar Larsen, and Selma Z. Nasby - ELSA Bergen, Human Rights Researchgruppen • 26. juni 2025
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